The Development of Phonics Fantasy Dance™ as supported by Evidence-Based Instruction:
What is Phonics Fantasy Dance™?
Where could Phonics Fantasy Dance™ be effectively used to help students?
Why is Phonics Fantasy Dance™ comprised of West African and Caribbean dance moves?
Why does Phonics Fantasy Theater™ include both a DVD and a production?
What is evidence-based instruction?
How can Phonics Fantasy Dance™ be applied to Gardner’s theory of Multiple Intelligences?
How does research support the use of music to enhance learning in Phonics Fantasy Dance™ DVD?
What are phonological awareness, phonemic awareness and phonics?
How is our approach to teaching phonological awareness, phonemic awareness and phonics implemented?
How can Phonics Fantasy Dance™ be implemented to optimize outcomes in the educational settings?
Would our program be beneficial to children with special needs?
Is the performance of Alice’s Phonics Fantasy targeted to a specific age group?
What is Phonics Fantasy Dance™?
Phonics Fantasy Dance™ uses traditional West African and some Caribbean dance movements to reinforce letter sounds. The dance movements are correlated with the speech sounds. For example the continuant speech sounds /f/, /s/, /sh/ are represented by a flowing motion of the arm. This is an innovative approach to teaching phonemic awareness in our classrooms by heightening the kinesthetic involvement. Currently, when learning to read, students are taught to point to a word or tap out a sound in phonemic segmentation activities, helping to reinforce their learning of that sound. While these techniques work for some students imagine how many more could be reached by taking the kinesthetic involvement to the next level, using their whole bodies to dance out the sounds whereby reinforcing them. Not only is it a motivational strategy but studies have also shown that with increased kinesthetic modality children will learn, understand and remember the information better; by being fully involved in the reading activity. Phonics Fantasy Dance™ assigns a specific dance movement to speech sound categories such as stretch sounds, short vowel sounds, stop sounds, long vowel sounds, r-controlled, letter blends and diphthongs. When students use Phonics Fantasy Dance™ they are blending letter sounds together by using our choreography to dance out words; this contributes to reading success and ultimately improved test scores!
“I see and I forget. I hear and I remember. I do and I understand.” – Confucius
Where could Phonics Fantasy Dance™ be effectively used to help students?
1. Primary Model
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★Private home use
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★Home School*
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★Movement class
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★Headstart programs*
2 Community School model After-school programs and/or classes in:
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★ Dance
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★ Physical Fitness
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★ Tutoring
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★ Reading for at-risk students (Response to Intervention- Tier 1)*
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★ Mentoring (Middle/H.S. students mentoring younger elementary school students)
3. School Model:
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★ Recess
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★ Physical Education
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★ Pull-out or inclusion- Response to Intervention*
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★ Social Studies classes
* The evidence-based data discussed below may be especially helpful to support use of the models mentioned above that are followed by asterisks. Please refer to the last section regarding Response to Intervention for more details. We hope you will find helpful the various sources mentioned below which provided the research base for our project.
Phonics Fantasy Dance™ as demonstrated in both the DVD and the play, Alice’s Phonics Fantasy, provides a fun, interactive format to improve literacy and speech articulation skills. Multi-sensory, systematic and explicit instruction focuses on the kinesthetic modality through dance movements. Evidence-based instruction indicates that kinesthetic learning plays an important role in the learning process.
Phonics Fantasy Dance™ teaches phonological awareness, phonemic awareness and phonics to Pre-Kindergarten through 2nd grade children. Evidence-based or research-based instruction in the fields of literacy, dance/movement, and speech-language pathology is implemented in an original model.
Why is Phonics Fantasy Dance™ comprised of West African and Caribbean dance moves?
In the introduction lesson of Phonics Fantasy Dance™ DVD we explain why this dance genre was chosen. In African culture dance was used as a tool for communication. People would tell stories of daily activities as well as special life events such as a wedding, harvest or birth of a baby through dancing. How fitting then is it for us to use these historical dance moves for literacy, an imperative form of communication today.
The latest research today suggests that one can learn a subject better by movement, which is known as kinesthetic modality. This concept of moving as a teaching tool is something that goes back thousands of years in African heritage.
Another reason that West African and Caribbean dance was chosen is that most genres of dance today originate from traditional West African and Caribbean dance moves. Therefore, we aim to teach speech sounds, the precursor to reading and writing, through the precursor of modern dance. If you take a close look at the dance moves we use in Phonics Fantasy Dance™ you will be able recognize many of the steps from modern genres as ballet, jazz, line dancing, hip-hop and many more.
Lastly, the steps we chose do not cross the midline so dancers at any age and any level can participate. African dance is comprised of much vertical movement this allows the dance steps to be done in any setting. Our steps are easy and are mostly comprised of jumping movements therefore dancers at any level can partake. It is less important that a child dance with perfection and more important that a child learn through dancing. Any approximation to our dance steps is expectable and should be encouraged.
Why does Phonics Fantasy Theater™ include both a DVD and a production?
Phonics Fantasy Dance™ DVD and Alice’s Phonics Fantasy have the same overall objective, to help students improve their reading skills. While they do work successfully as independent entities, ideally it is most beneficial to use them together. Using the DVD in the home or classroom setting allows the child personal time to expand phonological awareness and phonics skills in a content rich environment. Alice’s Phonics Fantasy allows the child to feel that they are apart of a larger learning community. As they watch a musical performance that demonstrates a student having the same feelings about learning that they might feel, conquer those feelings by learning through an innovative, fun and motivational way they can identify with the characters in the play. Young students are most impressionable when experiencing a multi-sensory extraordinary event. Research shows that the more memorable the experience the more information a student will retain. Only a live performance can guarantee such a memorable/meaningful experience. Our mission is to learn through entertaining means so that any child can have a more successful learning outcome.
What is evidence-based instruction?
Evidence Based instruction or Research Based instruction are terms used in the field of education. A summary from The International Reading Association-Position paper states. “To be described as ‘evidence based,’ an instructional program or collection of practices should have been tested and shown to have a record of success. That is, reliable, trustworthy, and valid evidence indicates that when that program or set of practices is used, children can be expected to make adequate gains in reading achievement.” “Research-based instruction” is sometimes used to convey the same meaning .Link: http://www.reading.org/resources/issues/positions_evidence_based.html
What are the research-based findings regarding literacy instruction to support Phonics Fantasy Dance™?
The National Reading Panel Report, (2000) affirmed that “Training in phonological awareness is critical to reading success and manipulating phonemes in words is highly effective across all literacy domains and outcomes.”
The National Institute for Literacy, “Put Reading First” (2003) publication states that “…teaching one or two types of phoneme manipulation-specifically blending and segmenting phonemes in words-is likely to produce greater benefits to your students’ reading than teaching several types of manipulation. Teaching your students to manipulate phonemes along with letters can also contribute to their reading success…Phonemic awareness instruction can help essentially all of your students learn to read, including preschoolers, kindergartners, first graders who are just starting to read, and older, less able readers…Systematic and explicit phonics instruction significantly improves kindergarten and first-grade children’s word recognition and spelling… and…reading comprehension.”
•The National Early Literacy Panel (NELP) 2008 Identified six variables that correlated with later literacy. Three of the six include:
1.Alphabet knowledge (AK): knowledge of the names and sounds associated with printed letters
2.Phonological awareness (PA): the ability to detect, manipulate, or analyze the auditory aspects of spoken language (including the ability to distinguish or segment words, syllables, or phonemes), independent of meaning
3.Phonological memory: the ability to remember spoken information for a short period of time
What is the evidence-based instruction for kinesthetic learning as it relates to dance and our project?
Alice’s Phonics Fantasy and Phonics Fantasy Dance™ DVD emphasize the value of using kinesthetic learning in our schools.
"Children enter kindergarten as kinesthetic and tactual learners, moving and touching everything as they learn. By second or third grade, some students have become visual learners. During the late elementary years some students, primarily females, become auditory learners. Yet, many adults, especially males, maintain kinesthetic and tactual strengths throughout their lives."(Teaching Secondary Students Through Their Individual Learning Styles, Rita Stafford and Kenneth J. Dunn; Allyn and Bacon, 1993 as cited in “Dancing In Your School, A Guide for Pre-School and Elementary School Teachers”, Anne Dunkin, 2006).
For Phonics Fantasy Dance™ it was necessary to consider dance movements that are appropriate for young children. The objective was to correlate the type of speech sound (based on how it is produced) with a specific gross motor movement. For example, the /s/ sound may be continued or “stretched” for ten seconds; therefore, this sound is accompanied with a continuous arm movement. On the other hand, the /b/ sound cannot be continued for ten seconds because it is a stop-plosive or “stop” sound, so it is accompanied by a quick, up-down arm movement. A major consideration was that the physical movements involved in Phonics Fantasy Dance be developmentally appropriate for our targeted age group.
The book, “Dancing In Your School, A Guide for Pre-School and Elementary School Teachers” by Anne Dunkin (2006) proved to be an indispensable resource in providing information about motor skills and perception in young children. Dr. Dunkin stated that, “It has long been established that young children learn by physically moving in and around their environment”. Regarding physical education and dance activity, she divides motor skills into three types-“locomotor, non-locomotor and perceptual motor. Locomotor skill includes visible body movements that move the body from one place to another. Non-locomotor movements are also visible but the body does not travel. Perceptual motor skill refers to movements of the body which may not be visible but affect the five senses-seeing, hearing, touching, smelling, tasting…the first three…directly affect balance, physical coordination, and spatial and temporal orientation.” (p.29). Phonics Fantasy Dance™ movements incorporate all three motor skills. In addition, arm and leg movements do not cross the midline to make the steps easier to learn for children who exhibit motor or coordination difficulties.
In her chapter, “Dancing as Kinesthetic Reinforcement of Learning”, the author defined “kinesthetic learning as ‘learning by doing’, getting students up on their feet, and actively engaging them in learning by using other than traditional modes of reading, writing, and listening while sitting. Kinesthetic learning methodology appears to be popular with many students… When dancing is used as kinesthetic learning, the emphasis is on the motivation for the moving, and what the moving represents.” (p.61). In Phonics Fantasy Dance™ the movements are of African and Caribbean origin to an African drum beat.
How can Phonics Fantasy Dance™ be applied to Gardner’s theory of Multiple Intelligences?
Dr. Dunkin masterfully explained Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences in relation to dance activity. Based on the examples provided, Phonics Fantasy Dance incorporates most of the eight multiple intelligences in the following manner:
1) Linguistic intelligence- creates new dance movement sequences to correlate with sound blending and/or word families.
2) Logical-mathematical intelligence- reinforces one-to-one correspondence of dance movements to speech sounds;
3) Spatial intelligence- increases awareness of personal and general space, emphasizes vertical movements to represent speech sounds and speech sound categories (continuant sounds, /r/-controlled vowels, etc), so students work in their personal space; (African-Caribbean dance movements mostly consist of vertical movements);
4) Musical intelligence-compares and contrasts the rhythm of the dance movement with the beat of the drum;
5) Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence- correlates the individual speech sound or speech sound category with the individual dance step by providing similar patterns of movement, i.e. sweeping motion of the arm correlates with continuant speech sounds, [s, z, f, v];
6) Interpersonal intelligence- emphasizes interactive behavior, turn-taking skills and whole group participation;
7) Intrapersonal intelligence- fosters positive self-image as student masters dance movements in synchrony with speech sounds.
How does research support the use of music to enhance learning in Phonics Fantasy Dance™ DVD?
Dr. Daniel J. Levitin writes in his book, The World in Six Songs (Dutton 2008),
Recent research has confirmed that music is a powerful way of encoding motor action sequences-specific movements that must be done in a particular way…The music also helps to set the emotional tone, to serve as a memory aid for practice, and to synchronize multiple participants.” (P. 208-209)
In Phonics Fantasy Dance™, drumming is used as background music throughout most of the DVD.
What are phonological awareness, phonemic awareness and phonics?
Phonological Awareness
Developing literacy requires an awareness that the spoken language can be taken apart in many different ways: sentences broken into words, words divided into syllables (sis/ter), and syllables divided into smaller, individual sounds (phonemes) such as /c/ /a/ /t/. Words can also be separated into onsets and rimes /c/ /at/. Phonological awareness includes knowledge of rhyming, alliteration (hearing similarity of sounds, as in "Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers"), and intonation.
Additional information- Phonological awareness - simple level of knowledge required about the general sound structure of language-
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★ Rhyme
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★Alliteration (initial sound sorts)
Phonemic Awareness
Phonemic awareness is one small part of phonological awareness. Spoken words are made up of individual sounds (phonemes) that can be heard and manipulated. For example, the word for has three phonemes, help has four; cane has three phonemes, as does same or make. Phonemic awareness activities include listening for, counting, and identifying distinct sounds (not letter names); hearing, matching, adding, chopping off, or rearranging sounds; and separating or blending sounds to make words. Phonemic awareness can be taught explicitly or indirectly through games, manipulative activities, chanting, and rea ding and singing songs and poems.
Additional information- Phonemic awareness - A subgroup of phonological awareness-deeper level of knowledge required about the sound structure of language.
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★ Phoneme identification
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★ Onset-rime segmentation or initial sound + word family segmentation
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★ Phoneme segmentation of monosyllabic words* (*most important skill for reading success)
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★ Phoneme blends of monosyllabic words
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★ Phoneme manipulation of monosyllabic words
Phonics
Sometimes referred to as sound/symbol connections, or graphophonics, phonics is the understanding of how letters or spelling patterns (graphemes) represent sounds of speech (phonemes). It involves awareness of the sounds of individual letters or letter combinations. Phonics requires the understanding that sounds can be blended to make a word, and a mastery of some rules about certain sound patterns. Phonics can be taught in many ways. All learners do not require the same amount or sequence of phonics instruction. Phonics should be balanced with instruction on language and meaning. A student may be able to sound out a word, but not understand its meaning. In order to read with accuracy and understanding, words to be read must be part of a student's oral language.
Additional information- Phonics – knowledge that oral language is composed of sounds and that symbols or letters represent those sounds.
Additional Terms:
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★Continuous sound: A sound that can be prolonged (stretched out) without distortion (e.g., r, s, a, m).
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★Onset-Rime: The onset is the part of the word before the vowel; not all words have onsets. The rime is the part of the word including the vowel and what follows it.
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★Phoneme: A phoneme is a speech sound. It is the smallest unit of language and has no inherent meaning.
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★Phoneme blending: The blending of phonemes into a word.
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★Phoneme segmentation: The separation of words into phonemes.
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★Phonemic awareness: The ability to hear and manipulate the sounds in spoken words, and the understanding that spoken words and syllables are made up of sequences of speech sounds (Yopp 1992). Phonemic awareness involves hearing language at the phoneme level.
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★Phonics (Alphabetic Principle): Use of the code (sound-symbol relationships) to recognize words.
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★Phonological awareness: The ability to hear and manipulate the sound structure of language. This is an encompassing term that involves working with the sounds of language at the word, syllable, and phoneme level.
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★Stop sound: A sound that cannot be prolonged (stretched out) without distortion (e.g., t, p, d, b, c)
Sources:
http://www.learner.org/workshops/readingk2/front/keyterms2.html
Schuele, C.M., & Boudreau, D (2008) (See References)
How is our approach to teaching phonological awareness, phonemic awareness and phonics implemented?
These skills are taught through narratives and rhymes to allow the students to hear selected words in sentences, which will increase comprehension, vocabulary and listening skills.
Evidence-based practice suggests that the best and fastest way for a student to learn any subject is through a multi-sensory approach. We accomplish this through the use of auditory, visual, tactile and kinesthetic modalities.
Auditory modality- uses the sense of hearing.
Throughout our DVD, auditory cues are provided for:
1.Manner and place of production of phonemes-
Example: “Place your upper teeth on your lower lip and say /f/.”
2.Verbal directions-
Example: “Say and dance out words.”
3.Interactive format-
Example: “Now it’s your turn.”
4. Repetition of selected monosyllabic words (C-V-C patterns)-
Example: “Repeat this word after me.”
5.Pacing of selected phonemes, words and sentences to allow the student time to process and respond.
Example: Three or more second pauses throughout the DVD
6.Prolongation of continuants and pauses after stop-plosives during phonemic segmentation and blending of C-V-C words-
Example: m at mat b at bat
Information presented through the auditory modality includes:
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★ Short narratives followed by “wh” questions to increase auditory comprehension.
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★ Target words in the context of oral sentences to increase receptive vocabulary and receptive language.
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★ Word families are presented through onset-rime patterns that focus on phonemic segmentation and blending.
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★ Sound effects to increase auditory attention and motivation, and environmental sound awareness and identification.
Visual modality- uses the sense of sight.
This modality benefits the most from the graphics and animation in the DVD.
Visual cues are provided for:
1.Correct production of individual speech sounds to improve phoneme identification and speech articulation.
Example: Close up view of instructor’s mouth.
2.Manner of production of individual speech sounds to improve phoneme identification and speech articulation- illustrated through “visual speech” graphics.
Examples:
a)Straight lines or letter-symbols streaming from instructor’s mouth to illustrate continuant consonant sounds- [f,v, s,z, sh,zh] etc. [SSSsssssss]
b)Cloud shapes representing puffs of air emanating from instructor’s mouth to illustrate stop-plosive consonant sounds- [p,b, t,d, k,g, ch,j] and [Pp Pp Pp].
1.Interactive format to increase student’s response.
Example: Consistently timed appearances of drummer drumming.
Information presented through the visual modality includes:
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★ Layout designed to maximize the auditory-verbal and visual-graphic relationship.
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★ Target words appearing in yellow on black background for increased visual attention.
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★ Complete written sentences presented to correlate with the spoken sentences. This method helps reinforce the relationship between oral and written language.
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★ Special visual animation aimed to increase students’ attention, motivation and participation.
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★ Compensation for varied conventional spelling patterns by simultaneously presenting the most consistent letter-symbol that corresponds to the phoneme being taught. Examples of the one-to-one relationship between the spoken sound and the English spelling are: (j) appearing above the –ge in the word, cage, or the (k) appearing above the c in the word cat.
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★ Color coding is used to represent the various classifications of phonemes based on manner of placement and voicing.
•mint green for voiced continuant sounds
•salmon for voiceless continuant
•blue for voiced stop plosive
•purple for voiceless stop plosive
•red for all vowel sounds
Tactile modality- uses the sense of touch.
Tactile cues are demonstrated for:
1.Voiceless phonemes- feeling increased air on the hand by placing the hand near the mouth.
Example: Instructor places her hand near her mouth and produces the /p/ sound. She comments on the puffs of air she feels. She instructs the student to do the same.
2.Voiced consonants and short vowels- by placing the hand on the throat and feeling the vibrations.
Example: Instructor places her hand on her throat and produces the /b/ sound. She comments on the vibrations she feels. She instructs the student to do the same.
3.Nasal sounds by placing a finger on the side of the nose and feeling the vibrations.
Example: Instructor places her finger on the side of her nose and produces the /m/ and /n/ sounds. She comments on the vibrations she feels. She instructs the student to do the same.
Kinesthetic modality- uses the sense of feeling within the muscles.
Kinesthetic cues are provided to establish:
1.The feel of the phoneme through multiple repetitions of producing the speech sound.
2.The body movements involved in Phonics Fantasy Dance.
**Phonics Fantasy Dance™ as it relates to the kinesthetic modality for learning purposes is discussed in detail in the above sections.**
How can Phonics Fantasy Dance™ be implemented to optimize outcomes in the educational settings?
This DVD may be adapted for the following intervention models:
Phonics Fantasy Dance™ may improve outcomes in a Response to Intervention (RTI) model. RTI is a systematic method of providing evidence-based instruction to “at-risk” students, often in the literacy and language areas. It is included in IDEA 2004. Most RTI models consist of three levels or tiers of intervention. Tier 1 is the least intense and Tier 3 is the most intense. Some RTI models include a Tier 4.
Our instructional DVD- Phonics Fantasy Dance™ meets the criteria for the Tier 1- Response to Intervention (RTI) model in the following ways:
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★ Provides additional instruction in the general education classroom for struggling or “at risk” students in early literacy skills
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★ Supports existing measurable goals for students
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★ Improves AYP (annual yearly progress)
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★ Correlates with benchmarks on state standard curriculums for phonological awareness, phonemic awareness, and phonics
Benefits of our instructional DVD- Phonics Fantasy Dance™ in the Tier 1- Response To Intervention (RTI) model:
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★ Involves the whole class or the whole school in a model of prevention and early intervention
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★ Provides systematic evidence-based instruction that follows the least restrictive environment (LRE) guidelines of IDEA 2004
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★ Supports the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) (ESEA, 2001)
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★ Assists students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds
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★ Uses technology in the student’s natural learning environment in a cost effective way
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★ Utilizes a multi-modal approach with emphasis on the kinesthetic modality to meet the needs of the young learner
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★ Provides 5-10 minute lessons combining phonological awareness, phonemic awareness and phonics with review of past lessons included
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★ Allows for repeat of lessons as often as students require without variation
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★ Coordinates with any reading program by viewing the lessons in the order that best corresponds with the curriculum (but we recommend following the hierarchical order of the DVD)
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★ Uses a live instructor and students in a classroom setting to best approximate the young student’s natural environment
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★ Makes use of animation to support phonics instruction
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★ Emphasizes speech sound placement instruction to assist young students and English Language Learners
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★ Motivates students through movement and music
As a teacher, I am interested in implementing the DVD in a classroom setting. Is the product intended for classroom use as well?
All of the lessons in Phonics Fantasy Dance™ are between 4 and 9 minutes. Since we realize that classroom time is at a premium this allows the teacher flexibility in using our product. Repeat the same lesson a few times each week as a transitional activity or as an additional teaching tool to your reading lessons. Ms. CJay, the instructor, gives explicit step by step simple instructions; while we recommend that you participate with your students in viewing and guiding them through the lessons for maximum learning outcomes it is not required and students will still benefit from the program by just participating. We do encourage you to use the insert guide and stop and start the DVD with your classroom to reinforce the phonics and phonological awareness skills with your students.
The DVD will correlate with State Curriculums and respective benchmarks so that you can incorporate the DVD into your lesson plans.
Both the performance and/or DVD may be used to improve:
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★Reading skills to support AYP (Annual Yearly Progress)
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★Objectives of NCLB (No Child Left Behind)
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★State Curriculum benchmarks
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★Test scores on state assessments
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★Goals/objectives that may be established for Response to Intervention (RTI) programs.
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★Performance skills for special education students in the general educational curriculum (inclusion model) or self-contained classrooms.
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★Speech articulation skills for English Language Learners (ELL) and children who exhibit minor speech articulation errors.
If my child repeatedly watches Phonics Fantasy Dance™ DVD’s lessons and masters the content what can I expect the outcomes to be?
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★ Develop and master phonological awareness
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★ Build awareness of and develop letter sound relationships
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★ Promote improved production of speech sounds
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★ Increase knowledge of word families for reading and spelling
Would our program be beneficial to children with special needs?
This interactive, instructional DVD may be beneficial for students who exhibit:
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★ Specific Learning Disabilities
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★ Attention Deficit Disorders (ADD, ADHD)
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★ Auditory Processing Disorders
Is the performance of Alice’s Phonics Fantasy targeted to a specific age group?
The information and skills presented in Alice’s Phonics Fantasy most closely match the literacy skills of the emergent, beginning and transitional readers. The grades that correlate with these reading levels are pre-kindergarten through second grade. The play can also be used as a review or for older students in grades 3-5.
National Center On Educational Statistics, 2003 Condition of Education, “…The difference in children’s reading skills and knowledge, often observed in later grades, appear to be present when children enter kindergarten and persist or increase through out the first 2 years of school.” (p.iii)
References
Catts, H (1991) Facilitating phonological awareness: Role of Speech-Language Pathologist Language, Speech and Hearing Services in Schools, 22, 196-203.
Dunkin, Anne (2006) Dancing In Your School, A Guide for Pre-School and Elementary School Teachers, Princeton, NJ, Princeton Book Company Publishers
Dunn, Rita Stafford and Dunn, Kenneth J. (1993) Teaching Secondary Students through their Individual Learning Styles: Practical Approaches for Grades 7-12 Boston: Allyn and Bacon
IDEA 2004, SS 614[b][5]
Levitin, Daniel J. (2008) The World in Six Songs, Dutton
http://www.nifl.gov/publications/pdf/NELPSummary.pdf
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (2000) Report of the National Reading Panel. Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction: Report of the Subgroups (NIH Publication No. 00-4754) Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office
Schuele, C.M., & Boudreau, D (2008) Phonological awareness intervention: Beyond the basics. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 39, 3-20
The National Institute for Literacy, Put Reading First (2003) publication
Torgesen, J. (2004) Preventing early reading failure-and its devastating downward spiral. Retrieved October 13, 2008 from www.aft.org
U.S. Department of Education. (2001) No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. Washington D.C. Department of Education
